The Mexican War and California Los Angeles in the War with Mexico By Mark J. Denger California Center for Military History Contemporary map of the Battle of Los Angeles. 9 January 1847, California Military Department Historical Collection (Click for a larger view)
History
It is necessary to clearly understand thesituation in California as it was on July 7, 1846, the day CommodoreJohn D. Sloat hoisted the "Stars and Stripes" over Monterey.To begin with, the Gavilán Peak episode between GeneralD. José Castro and John C. Frémont's expedition,in March 1846, caused United States Consul Thomas O. Larkin, Jr.,to appeal for protection from the Pacific Squadron of the U.S.Navy (1). In response the sloop USS PORTSMOUTH reached Montereyon April 22, 1846. While this was only a precautionary measure,as history bears witness, it set in motion a series of eventsthat led to the conquest of Los Angeles and thereby California.
The Republic of California, commonly referredto as the "Bear Flag Republic," ceased to exist by theunanimous consent of the Americans who composed it, the momentthe "Stars and Stripes" replaced the last Bear Flagflying at Sutter's Fort on July 11, 1846. Thus the short-livedBear Flag Republic ceased to exist twenty-eight days after ithad began. The Bear Flag Republic devolved upon its participantsto perform the task of wresting the Province from Mexico (2).
Commodore Sloat was cognizant of CommodoreThomas ap Catesby Jones' premature capture of Monterey in 1842(3). To make matters worse, to the best of Sloat's knowledge,the United States was not at war with Mexico. So it was with greatreservation that Sloat raised the American flag in accordancewith standing instructions he had received from Washington shouldwar be declared.
To recap, the Pacific Squadron had beenpatrolling between the Sandwich Islands and Mazatlan, on Mexico'swest coast, for many months, awaiting a message from the NavyDepartment on war. Sloat, however, possessed no evidence thatwar had been declared. Furthermore, he had no instructions toset up any form of government in California on behalf of the UnitedStates (4).
In order to calm the fears of the Californiosand by the term "Californios" is meantthe Mexican inhabitants and also to make his position clear,Sloat issued a proclamation prior to raising the flag at Monterey.This proclamation is important for it serves to make clear inthe minds of the present-day reader the exact situation at thattime, and Sloat's position and point of view.
It should also be pointed out that duringthe Mexican War, Los Angeles was considered the most importantcity on the Mexican-held Pacific Coast. Even though the flag ofthe United States had been raised over the customs-house at Montereyby sailors from Sloat's flagship, the USS SAVANNAH, without firinga shot on July 7, 1846, a feat duplicated at both Yerba Buena(San Francisco) and Sonoma by forces under command of CaptainJohn B. Montgomery of the USS PORTSMOUTH on July 9, and at Sutter'sFort only a few days later, the simple fact of the matter wasthat Pueblo de los Angeles was at that time the capital of theProvince of Alta California.
The Territorial Legislature of the MexicanCongress, in 1835, established the capital of Alta Californiaat the Pueblo de los Angeles. When Pio Pico entered upon the dutiesof governor, he did so with a desire to bring peace and harmonyto Alta California. Only the military headquarters, the archivesand treasury remained at Monterey, with the principal officesof the territory divided equally between northern and southernCalifornia.
So even though the flag of the United Stateswas raised over Monterey and Yerba Buena, the occupation of Pueblode los Angeles was not effected until its was taken possessionof by the combined forces of Commodore Robert F. Stockton andColonel John C. Frémont on August 13, 1846.
Stockton, having succeeded Sloat, learnedof Gen. Castro's stand at Los Angeles. On taking command of thePacific Squadron on July 29, he immediately made preparationsto capture the city. Sloat did not approve of Col. Frémont'sactions setting about the Bear Flag Revolt or Stockton's policiesto conquer California.
Frémont, who had come to Montereyfrom Sutter's fort with his battalionof 120 men, was ordered by Stockton to proceed to San Diego. Hewas ordered to take that place, and then to march north, meetStockton near Los Angeles, and take the capitol at the Pueblode los Angeles. On July 26, Frémont and his men set sailon the CYANE. A week later, on August 1, Stockton departed inthe frigate CONGRESS with 350 marines and sailors for San Pedro.
With this in mind, let us now turn our attentionto Los Angeles and learn how affairs progressed at the capital.
Commodore Stockton had brought Mr. ThomasO. Larkin, the American Consul, with him to San Pedro. Larkinhad high hopes that he might negotiate the peaceful annexationof California. Before departing Yerba Buena, Larkin had writtento both Governor Pio Pico and Gen. Flores advising them to endeavorto make terms with Stockton.
On August 6, 1846, Stockton put ashore theship's Marines, under First Lieutenant Jacob Zeilin, and seizedSan Pedro without firing a shot. They immediately proceeded toestablished the Navy's first base in San Pedro. This would bethe first military base established by the United States, muchless a naval base, any where near Los Angeles. Upon landing, themen began a week of drilling in land tactics in preparation ofthe twenty-five mile march to Los Angeles.
At that time, both Castro and Pico werethen together in Los Angeles and they sent a delegation to SanPedro to negotiate with Stockton as soon as news of his arrivalhad reached them. In this delegation were Pablo de la Guerra andJose Maria Flores, the later very soon afterwards became ComandanteGeneral of the California military forces.
Commissioners Guerra and Flores delivereda letter to Stockton in which Castro expressed a general willingnessto negotiate for peace provided the "all hostile movementsbe suspended by both forces." This gentlemanly proffer seemedreasonable to Larkin, but Stockton absolutely declined to treatwith Guerra and Flores as the ambassadors of Castro and Pico orin any other capacity. Stockton rejected all terms of peace butsent Larkin ahead under a flag of truce with his reply.
Stockton's message, dated August 7, stated,"I do not wish to war against California or her people; butas she is a department of Mexico, I must war against her untilshe ceases to be a part of the Mexican territory. This is my plainduty." He insisted upon Castro's unconditional surrenderand ended the letter with ". . . if, therefore, you willagree to hoist the American flag in California, I will stop myforces and negotiate the treaty."
Castro rejected the proposal, consideringit humiliating, and conferred with Governor Pico, after whichthe assembly met and was dissolved.
Five days later, on August 11, a mixed bodyof sailors and Marines began a march from San Pedro to captureLos Angeles. Stockton again sent Larkin, with two other officers,ahead to Los Angeles with a letter to Castro. Larkin met withno resistance on the road to Los Angeles and enter the puebloonly to find the Government House abandoned.
It has been suggested by many writers onthe subject that Gen. Castro tried a bluff. One such story suggeststhat Castro sent word to Stockton that "if he marched uponthe town he would find it the graves of his men." Accordingly,came the Commodore's laconic reply, "Tell the General tohave the bells ready to toll, as I shall be there tomorrow."There is little real historical support for this exchange of communication,as Castro's forces, along with Governor Pico, had already madea hasty retreat from Los Angeles.
Larkin, having found that Castro and Picohad fled, so notified Stockton. Stockton sent a portion of hismarines back to the ship and continued his march with the balance.By the time Stockton had reached the outskirts of the town, Frémontand his battalion had joined forces.
On August 13, with band playing and colorsflying, the combined forces of Stockton and Frémont enteredLos Angeles, without a man killed nor gun fired. The pueblo ofLos Angeles offered no resistance, and the Americans establishedmilitary headquarters on Main street. Stockton simply declaredmartial law, organized a military company, and put Benjamin (DonBenito) Wilson in command, who joined forces with Frémontand his men, leaving only a small contingent of fifty marinesto occupy the pueblo under Capt. Archibald H. Gillespie, U.S.M.C.
Stockton, as commander of the Pacific Squadron,issued a proclamation to the people,signing himself "Commander-in-Chief and Governor of California"on August 17, 1846. The proclamation announced that the countrywas now the possession of the United States and California wouldbe governed like any other territory of that nation, but meanwhileby military law.
Evidence shows that the President JamesK. Polk had signed the Declaration of War against Mexico on May13, 1846, but the Pacific Squadron of the U.S. Navy in the CaliforniaTheater had no direct knowledge that war existed until the sloopWARREN sailed into Monterey on August 12.
It should be remembered that everythingup to this point had been done based on Frémont's earlieracts. Interestingly enough, it was on August 17, that the war-shipWARREN anchored at San Pedro bringing definite news of a declarationof war to Stockton and Frémont.
On September 2, 1846, Stockton divided Californiainto three military districts. A few days earlier, he named Frémontmilitary commandant of the new territory and installed Lieut.Gillespie as alcalde of Los Angeles. Among his last dutiesbefore departing Pueblo de los Angeles, Stockton ordered Kit Carsonto Washington with a full report to President Polk and SecretaryBancroft. Stockton, in a letter dated August 26, 1846, reportedto the Secretary of the Navy:
"Thus in less than a month after I assumed the command of the United States Forces in California, we have chased the Mexican Army more than three hundred miles along the coast; pursued them thirty miles in the interior of their own country, routed and dispersed them; and secured the territory to the United States; ended the war, restored peace and harmony among the people; and put a civil government into successful operation."
Larkin heartily approved of Stockton's conductand so reported to Buchanan that "[p]erhaps no officer inour Navy is better adapted for the capture, charge and care ofCaliforia." He applauded Stockton's appointment of Frémontas military commandant of California and the commodore's planfor a provincial civil government, outline in a draft of a constitutionwhich Larkin termed "The Organic Law of his Empire."
With Los Angeles now under control of Americanforces, on September 5, Stockton ordered the naval force to withdrawback to San Pedro, proceeding from that place for Yerba Buena(5). Frémont and his force was ordered to take the overlandtrail northward, the agreement being that the two commanders withtheir forces were to meet at Yerba Buena---on October 26.
Southern California now seemingly pacified,the scene shifted northward, back to Monterey and Yerba Buena.
With California in his possession and armedwith the fact that war had been formally declared by the UnitedStates against Mexico, Stockton set about organizing a governmentfor the conquered territory. The conquerors of California, Stocktonand Frémont, now turned their attention to making plansfor the occupation of Mexico. The plan called for Frémontto assume control of California and Stockton, with a full regimentof sailors and marines, to undertake a naval expedition down BajaCalifornia, sail around Cabo San Lucas, take on supplies at Mazatlan,and proceed south by southeast to Acapulco. There he would disembarkand march overland 250 miles north to Mexico City to "shakehands with General Zachary Taylor at the gates of Mexico."
Back in Los Angeles, things might have remainedpeaceful, except that Capt. Gillespie was left in charge of LosAngeles. The placing of the pueblo under martial law greatlyangered the Californios. Leaving the city in command ofa U.S. Marine only angered the Angeleños more. Atthe end of September, about 300 Angeleños stageda revolt, under Gen. M. Flores, taking a solemn oath not to laydown their arms until they had driven out "the accursed Americans."
The American garrison left in charge ofLos Angeles was quite small, and on September 23, 1846, the localinhabitants revolted against the occupying force. About twentymen led by Cérbulo Varela exchanged shots with the Americansin their quarters at the Government House. The attack struck aspark to the latent hostility against the garrison and by nightfallLos Angeles was in arms against the occupying force.
Meanwhile, the first battle of the war tookplace at the Chino Rancho about twenty-five miles east of LosAngeles in the neighborhood of which Stockton had directed sometwenty Americans to keep in close touch with one another for thepurpose of guarding the San Bernardino frontier against the possiblereturn of Castro and an armed force from Mexico.
On September 26-27, 1846, Flores sent SerbuloVarela with about fifty men to route the Americans at Chino. Josedel Carmen and others, marching from the opposite direction, joinedforces with Varela. The Americans were attacked in the adobe ranchhouse where they had assembled. Neither side was supplied withmuch ammunition. The Californios on their horses assaultedthe house, firing their guns from the backs of the animals. TheAmericans returned the fire, but the Californios succeededin getting close under the walls of the house and setting theroof on fire. The Americans then came out and surrendered andwere taken prisoners to the camp of the Comandante Flores,just outside of Los Angeles.
The result of the battle was one Californiokilled and several wounded and three Americans wounded seriously.
Back in Los Angeles, Gillespie, having foundhimself in a serious situation, withdrew from their headquartersin town and posted his men on Fort Hill. Unfortunately, Gillespiehad not first determined whether the position had water, whichit did not. Gillespie was caught in a trap, surrounded, with onlya few men, with no water and no supplies. Within a few days nearly600 well-armed Mexicans would surround the hilltop garrison ofGillespie and demand its surrender. They were outnumbered tento one by the enemy. John Brown, an American, called by theCalifornios Juan Flaco, meaning "Lean John," succeededin breaking through the Mexican lines and riding with all speedto Yerba Buena he delivered to Stockton a dispatch from Gillespienotifying him of the situation.
Flores called on Gillespie to surrender,pointing out to the Americans that their situation was hopelessand that any resistance offered on their part could result onlyin an unnecessary sacrifice of human life. The Californian Commanderoffered to permit Lieutenant Gillespie and his men to withdrawwith their colors and arms and all the honors of war. Flores alsooffered an exchange of prisoners (6).
Gillespie, on September 30, finally acceptedthe terms of capitulation (7) and departed for San Pedro withhis forces, accompanied by the exchanged American prisoners andseveral American residents. The Americans arrived in San Pedrowithout molestation and four or five days later embarked on theAmerican ship VANDALIA, on board of which they remained in theharbor awaiting instructions from the north.
Gillespie took two cannon with him whenhe evacuated the city and left two spiked on Fort Hill. Thereseems to have been a proviso in the articles of capitulation requiringhim to deliver the guns to Flores on reaching the embarcadero.Instead, he spiked the guns, broke off the breech knobs and trunnionsand rolled one of them into the bay.
Flaco Brown, the courier that had been sentout by Gillespie from Los Angeles, found Stockton at San Franciscoon October 1. The news alarmed Stockton since he had but a shorttime before officially declared the conquest of California completeand all that remained for him to do was to establish a civil government.He resolved upon immediate action. Frémont had been orderedto proceed by water to Santa Barbara, so Stockton prepared tosail with a force to San Pedro for the relief of Gillespie andthe recapture of Los Angeles.
On the way down the coast the ship STERLING,in which Frémont with one hundred sixty men had set sail,met the VANDALIA from San Pedro, and Frémont then learnedof the situation at Los Angeles. Taking matters in his own hands,as he frequently had done before, he determined to return to Monterey.The ship met with bad weather. There Frémont's forces werejoined by other Americans and, proceeding to San Juan Bautista,he began his march southward on November 26, with an army consistingof about five hundred men, fairly well mounted and equipped withmuskets in addition to four brass field pieces.
In the meantime, as Stockton was sailingfor San Pedro, he was informed that Monterey, which he believedto be unprotected, was threatened with attack, so he hastenedto that point, sending Captain William Mervine on to San Pedro.
Fog delayed the SAVANNAH's departure untilOctober 4. She reached San Pedro two days later to find the VANDALIAat anchor with Gillespie's men still embarked. After conferringwith Gillespie, Mervine decided to march immediately to Los Angeles.
On October 7, Mervine's forces, joined bythose of Gillespie, numbering about three hundred fifty men, landedand proceeded to mount an attack against Los Angeles.
Mervine's troops camped at Rancho San Pedro,taking over everything but the Dominguez family house. That nighta group of about 200 Angeleños took positions atthe Los Angeles River below Dominguez Hill. During the night theCalifornians started sniping at the American bivouac. At daylight,Mervine's troops attempted proceeded on the road they were metby a party of Californians. The Americans were unable to moveNorth. The battle of Dominguez Ranch ensued.
The Angeleños had hitcheda cannon to some horses which they would fire and then retreat,and then fire again. The result to the Americans was disastrouswith the loss of four men killed and several wounded (8). Believingthat he was faced by a superior force, Capt. Mervine was compelledto retreat back to San Pedro. American troops made several triesto re-occupy Los Angeles, but had little success.
After landing reinforcements at Monterey,the CONGRESS resumed her voyage to San Pedro but missed Frémont.Stockton's flag ship, the CONGRESS, arrived at San Pedro on October23. The SAVANNAH was still lying at anchor in the harbor. Thefollowing morning the two frigates landed their Marines, a detachmentof sailors, and Gillespie's men. Although the Californians neithercontested the landing nor harassed the American encampment, afterreassessed the situation, and based on the intelligence that theAngeleños possessed a superior force, Stockton concludedto continue on his course and retake Los Angeles from the south.
Stockton sailed with the whole expeditionto San Diego, having doubtless been convinced that the Californianswere not to be so easily whipped as he had supposed. His planwas to secure a safer anchorage for the ships in the harbor ofSan Diego and after a thorough reorganization at that port, marchhis forces up through the interior and prosecute the war by land.It was there, in San Diego, that Stockton would combine his forceswith Brigadier General Stephen W. Kearny and Colonel Philip St.George Cooke and the Morman Battalion.
Meanwhile, after the expulsion of Gillespieand his men from Los Angeles, detachments from Flores' army weresent to Santa Barbara and San Diego to recapture these places.Stockton's shift of base to San Diego handed Flores badly neededtime to organize his forces. And, with this in mind, it wouldtake the American forces nearly three months before the Americanswould retake Los Angeles.
In January of 1847, the last two seriousmilitary engagements against U.S. forces invading California werefought below Los Angeles.
With the dragoons' arrival all of the forcesavailable for the decisive Los Angeles campaign were in position.Stockton set his force in motion on December 28 and 29. When thelast units departed San Diego, the force numbered 607 men. Tothe north, Frémont was making his way south.
On January 7, Stockton's troops camped nearthe ranch house on Rancho Los Coyotes. Their resting spot wasnear a stream that is a tributary of Coyote Creek. The officerswere entertained at the ranch house on Rancho Los Coyotes whilethe troops prepared to march on to Los Angeles the next day (9).
In the meantime, the Californioswere planning an ambush at the San Gabriel River. Flores preparedto ambush Stockton's men at La Jaboneria Ford on the river. Fortunately,during the night, Stockton's scouts discovered the Californiansand he ordered his men to cross at a higher point BartoloFord. Flores followed suit and was able to take up position beforethe slower-moving Americans reached the crossing. The Americanforces received word of the ambush and were prepared when theymet Flores' forces at the river.
On the morning of January 8, about 350 Californiosled by Flores and Pico offered the last serious Mexican resistanceagainst U.S. forces at the Battle of the San Gabriel River. ThereMexican defenders attempted to block the march of U.S. Army andNaval troops, commanded by Kearny and Stockton, advancing fromthe direction of San Diego.
At the Battle of San Gabriel, however, theCalifornians were not successful in facing Stockton's offensive.The Americans possessed superior firepower and a more professionalmilitary force. After two hours of artillery duels, infantry andcavalry charges, the Californians saw no chance of victory andconceded the Battle of the San Gabriel River by withdrawing (10).
The Mexican forces retreated, falling backto the Los Angeles area. What remained of the beaten Mexican forceretreated to an encampment in La Mesa what is now Pasadena.Here, another military skirmish occurred on January 9, 1847. Afternearly an hour of artillery duels, infantry and cavalry charges,Flores found himself unable to match the American forces superiorfirepower. The Californios were again forced to withdraw.
After hearing of the final military outcome,on January 10, 1847, the leaders from Los Angeles came out tosurrender the city peacefully to the American military force.
Flores, seeing the situation as hopeless,now moved north of the city. In the meantime, Frémont arrivedin the Los Angeles area from the north and occupied Mission SanFernando.
While encamped at the San Fernando Mission,Frémont dispatched Jesus Pico, a man of some influencein the Mexican community, to persuade the remaining Mexican forcesto surrender. With Flores still present, it was decided to followthe advice of Jesus Pico. On January 12, as Flores turned overcommand to his deputy, Andres Pico, and headed south to Mexico.That day, representatives from the Mexican camp returned withJesus Pico to meet with Frémont to determine the termsfor a capitulation.
On January 13, 1847, Gen. Andres Pico, asnewly appointed Commander-in-Chief of Mexican forces in California,met with Frémont at a Cahuenga Pass ranch house and formallysigned the Articles of Capitulation.
- The terms Frémont proposed were exceptionally generous and nearly duplicated ones which Stockton had refused earlier. This treaty, completed the active campaigning in Southern California and, for all intent and purpose, ended California's role in the Mexican War.
- Footnotes
- (1) Captain John C. Frémont, a civil engineer in the Army Topographical Corps of Engineers in the services of the United States, appeared at Monterey in January, 1846, with a party of about sixty heavily-armed mountain men. Frémont applied to General Castro, military comandante, for permission to buy supplies for his party who were encamped in the San Joaquin Valley, in what is now Kern County. When Mexican authorities questioned the intrusion, Frémont and U.S. Consul Thomas O. Larkin explained that the party was simply surveying. Permission to remain in the country was granted. As one might expect, the Californians were agitated by the rumors of impending war between Mexico and the United States over the annexation of Texas. They were increasingly suspicious of the intentions of the growing number of American settlers who were, in turn, fearful that the Californians were planning to expel them from the province. There seems to have been a tacit agreement that the exploring party should not enter the settlements, but early in March the whole force was encamped in the Salinas Valley. Castro regarded the marching of a body of armed men through the country as an act of hostility, and ordered them out of the country. Frémont considered the order a personal affront. Defying orders issued by Castro to leave the country, Frémont and his armed party of 60 ascended Gavilán Peak, hastily erected a log stockade on its summit and raised the flag there on March 6. On reflection, and at Larkin's urging, Frémont withdrew quietly, abandoning the post several days later, and rode north to Oregon. Frémont's belligerency had raised the specter of an American invasion.
- (2) In an era of "Manifest Destiny," John C. Frémont is considered by some to be the actual conqueror of the California region in 1846. Encouraged, if not directly aided by Frémont, a body of American settlers from the Napa and Sacramento Valleys, thirty-three in number, took possession of the old castillo or fort at Sonoma, revolting against Mexican authority on June 14, 1846, raising the infamous Bear Flag, and issuing a proclamation declaring California to be free and independent. When one considers the remarkable history of California in the stirring years immediately following the Bear Flag Revolt, and its consequential relationship to the great Republic of which it was about to become a part, the raising of the Bear Flag takes on added significance despite the fact that the Bear Flag Revolt, as a small affair, would be submerged in the far deeper currents that were to follow.
- (3) The lesson learned from the premature "capture" of Monterey by Commodore Thomas Ap Catesby Jones, on October 19, 1842, and its "restoration" to the local authorities two days later clearly made Commodore Sloat think twice. Jones was apprehensive that the British Squadron was intending to take possession of the Californias; and on his arrival off Monterey, being impressed with the idea that a state of war actually existed between Mexico and the United States, captured a Mexican Brig then about to enter the port and demanded a surrender of the presidio and pueblo of Monterey in the name of the United States, which capitulated, and struck the Stars and Stripes in place of the Mexican flag, occupied the place with a detachment from the American Squadron. After two days time, however, Jones found himself in possession of satisfactory information that amicable relations continued to exist between the two countries and gave up the vessel, presidio and pueblo.
- (4) When Commodore John D. Sloat raised the United States flag over Monterey and claimed California for the United States on July 7, 1846, Sloat was dissatisfied and distressed when he learned that Frémont had acted on his own authority. Not knowing of "any formal declaration of war" between the two nations, Commodore Sloat "acted upon the faith" of Frémont's operations in the north. The Bear Flag was withdrawn and gave way to the United States flag on July 9, 1846 as did the short lived Bear Flag Revolt which symbolized California's Independence.
- (5) The flagship CONGRESS and the SAVANNAH arrived in the San Francisco Bay on September 27, and the fleet prepared to move to Mexican coastal waters.
- (6) B. D. Wilson, who with a company of riflemen, having reached the Chino ranch, was compelled to surrender after a brief battle. In the charge upon the adobe, where Wilson and his men had taken refuge, several Californians were killed or wounded. This and Gillepie's resistance embittered the Californians. The Chino prisoners had been saved from massacre after their surrender but were now being used as pawns at the bargaining table.
- (7) Despairing of assistance from Stockton, on the advice of B. D. Wilson, who had been permitted by Flores to intercede with Gillespie, articles of capitulation were drawn up and signed by Gillespie and the leaders of the Californians. On September 30, the Americans marched out of the city with all the honors of war and arrived in San Pedro four days later.
- (8) The four Americans were buried on Isla de Muertos, or Deadmen's Island in San Pedro harbor.
- (9) Today, a memorial can be found on a boulder in front of the Los Coyotes Country Club commemorating this event.
- (10) The site of the Battle of the San Gabriel River is where the Californians, commanded by Gen. Flores and Gen. Pico, made their final serious attempt to stop U.S. troops from capturing Los Angeles and, in fact, all of California. On January 8, 1847, outgunned, the Mexicans were forced to withdraw and, shortly thereafter, surrender. The site of this battle is marked by a plaque flanked by two cannon at the corner of Washington Boulevard and Bluff Road, above the Rio Hondo river. (In 1847, the San Gabriel river ran in that channel.)
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